Bioaerosols Handbook

This comprehensive handbook provides up-to-date knowledge and practical advice from established authorities in aerosol science. It covers the principles and practices of bioaerosol sampling, descriptions and comparisons of bioaerosol samplers, calibration methods, and assay techniques, with an emphasis on practicalities, such as which sampler to use and where it should be placed. The text also offers critiques concerning handling the samples to provide representative and meaningful assays for their viability, infectivity, and allergenicity. A wide range of microbes-viz., viruses, bacteria, fungi and pollens, and their fragments-are considered from such perspectives.Bioaerosols Handbook is divided into four parts, providing a wide-ranging reference work, as well as a practical guide on how best to sample and assay bioaerosols using current technology.

Christopher S. Cox was educated at Bristol University, where in 1958 he obtained a B.SC. in special Honours Biochemistry and in 1961 his Ph.D. in Biophysical Chemistry. On completing his thesis, concerned with roles of water molecules in biological systems, he joined the Ministry of Defence, UK, initially as a Junior Research Fellow at the Microbiological Research Establishment (MRE), Parton Down, UK. On its closure in 1979, he transferred to the Chemical and Biological Defence establishment. His career has included also five years working in the U.S. as a Guest Scientist of the Department of Defense. Dr. Cox's published works include two books together with about 60 research papers all concerned with different aspects of bioaerosols and microbial survival following desiccation. Christopher M. Wathes is an environmental scientist, originally trained in physics. After 10 years in the Department of Animal Husbandry at the University of Bristol, England, studying aerobiology in the context of animal houses, he moved to Silsoe Research Institute in 1990 to become Head of the Animal Science and Engineering Division. He has a long standing interest in the generation, dispersion and survival of bioaerosols in livestock buildings, including their effects on animals. Currently his two major interests are emissions of atmospheric pollutants within and from animal houses; and environmental influences on animal behavior and welfare.

Chapter-1 Editor's Introduction -- Chapter-2 Bioaerosols: Introduction, Retrospect and Prospect, /JM Hirst -- The Foundations -- The Tools of the Trade -- Handling the Catch -- Current Practice -- Overview -- Reference -- Chapter-3 Physical Aspects of Bioaerosol Particles, /CS Cox -- Introduction -- Brownian Motion -- Gravitational Field -- Electrical Forces -- Thermal Gradients -- Electromagnetic Radiation -- Turbulent Diffusion and Inertial Forces -- Inertial Impaction -- Particle Shape -- Relative Humidity and Hygroscopy -- Relative Humidity Measurement -- Conclusions -- References -- Chapter-4 Physical Aspects of Bioaerosol Sampling and Deposition, /K W Nicholson -- Introduction -- The Physics of Particle Sampling -- Practical Air Sampling of Atmospheric Bioaerosols -- Particle Size Analysis -- The Atmosphere-Surface Exchange of Particulate Materials in the Outdoor Environment -- Dry Deposition as a Removal Process -- Wet Deposition as a Removal Process -- The Resuspension of Material Into the Atmosphere -- Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter-5 Bioaerosol Particle Statistics, /AJ Heber -- Introduction -- Properties of Bioaerosol Size Distributions -- Shape -- Quantity -- Size -- Particle Grouping -- Averages -- Diameter of Average Quantity -- Moment Averages of Weighted Distributions -- Variance -- Size Distribution Functions -- Normal -- Lognormal -- Gaudin-Schuhman Power Law -- Rosin-Rammler -- Goodness of Fit -- Application -- Bioaerosol B1 -- Bioaerosol B2 -- Bioaerosol B3 -- Open-Ended Classes -- Statistical Accuracy -- Summary -- Principal Symbols -- List of Subscripts -- References -- Chapter-6 Stability of Airborne Microbes and Allergens, /CS Cox -- Introduction -- Survival and Infectivity -- Most Probable Target Molecules -- Relative Humidity and Temperature -- Coliphages -- Viruses -- Bacteria -- Other Microbes -- Allergens -- Oxygen -- Open Air Factor and Other Pollutants -- Radiation -- Mathematical Models -- Dehydration and Temperature Model -- Oxygen and Open Air Factor Models -- Maillard Reactions -- Membrane Phase Changes -- Energetics -- Repair -- The Repair Problem -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-7 Aerosol Generation for Instrument Calibration, /JP Mitchell -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Aerosol Generation Methods -- Monodisperse Aerosols -- Polymer Latex Particles -- Vibrating Orifice and Related Aerosol Generators -- Spinning Top /Disc Aerosol Generators -- Condensation Aerosol Generators -- Electrostatic Classifier -- Other Sources of Monodisperse Particles -- Polydisperse Aerosols -- Compressed Air Nebulizers -- Ultrasonic Nebulizers -- Fluidized Bed Aerosol Generators -- Other Dust Generators -- Exploding Wire Aerosol Generators -- Gas-Phase Reactions -- Particle Standards -- Instrument Calibration -- Inertial Analyzers -- Impactors and Cyclones -- Inertial Spectrometers -- Real-Time Aerodynamic Particle Sizers -- Optical Particle Counters -- Electrical Aerosol Analyzers -- Condensation Nuclei Counters (CNCs) -- Aerosol Mass Concentration Monitors -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter-8 Particle Size Analyzers: Practical Procedures and Laboratory Techniques, /JP Mitchell -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Sampling for Size Analyses -- General Principles -- Calm-Air Sampling -- Flowing Gas Streams -- Sample Line Losses -- Sampling from Ducts and Stacks -- Aerosol Particle Size Measurement Techniques -- Summary of Methods -- Sedimentation /Inertial Techniques -- Sedimentation Techniques (Elutriators) -- Cascade Impactors -- Cascade Cyclones -- Real-Time Analyzers -- Centrifugal Spectrometers -- Optical Techniques -- Optical Particle Counters · -- Laser Diffractometers -- Laser (Phase)-Doppler Systems -- Intensity Deconvolution Technique -- GALAICIS Laser-Particle Interaction /Image Analyzer -- Electrical Mobility Techniques -- Operating Principle -- Electrical Aerosol Analyzer (EAA) -- Differential Mobility Analyzers (DMAs) -- Microscopy -- Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter-9 Inertial Samplers: Biological Perspectives, /B Crook -- Introduction -- Gravitation /Settle Plates -- Impactors, Sieve and Stacked Sieve Samplers -- Single-Stage Samplers -- Spore traps -- Whirling Arm or Rotorod Samplers -- Slit-To Agar Samplers -- Analysis -- Cascade Impactors -- Sieve Samplers -- Stacked Sieve -- Single-Stage Sieve Samplers -- Analysis -- Impingers -- Size Fractionating Impingers -- Centrifugal Samplers (Cyclones, Centrifuges) -- Cyclone Samplers -- Centrifugal Samplers -- Practical Aspects -- High-Volume Sampling -- Sampling of Large Particles -- Other Practical Aspects -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-10 Non-Inertial Samplers: Biological Perspectives, /B Crook -- Introduction -- Filtration -- Filtration Media -- Fibrous Filters -- Membrane Filters -- Flat Filters -- Filter Holders -- Analysis -- Microscopy -- Cultivation -- Airborne Allergens -- Relative Performance of Filtration Sampling -- Electrostatic Precipitation -- Collection Into Liquid -- Collection Onto Solid Surface -- Analysis -- Performance -- Thermal Precipitation -- Practical Aspects of Sampling -- High-Volume Sampling -- Sampling Large Particles -- Other Practical Aspects -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-11 Modern Microscopic Methods of Bioaerosol Analysis, /KJ Morris -- Introduction -- Direct Visualization and Measurement of Spores and Pollens -- Sedimentation and Impaction Devices -- Filters -- Measurement of Viable Microorganisms in the Air -- Sedimentation and Impaction Devices -- Gelatin Filters -- Light Microscopy -- The Mono-Objective Bright Field Light Microscope -- Visualization of Cell Structures Using Traditional -- Histological Stains -- Counting Objects on a Slide -- Manually Measuring the Size of Objects on a Slide -- Counting Objects in a Liquid Suspension -- The Dark Field Illuminated Microscope -- The Phase Contrast Microscope -- The Polarizing Microscope -- The Interference Microscope -- The Fluorescence Light Microscope -- Introduction -- Using the Fluorescence Microscope -- The Confocal Microscope -- The Scanning Electron Microscope -- The Transmission Electron Microscope -- The Image Analyzer -- Introduction -- Video Cameras -- Image Analysis -- Colony Counting -- Other Physical Methods for Detecting Microorganisms -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-12 Chemical Analysis of Bioaerosols, /KR Spurny -- Introduction -- Collection and Specimen Preparation -- Microscopical Detection and Identification -- Chromatographic Methods -- Laser Spectroscopical Methods -- Fluorescence and Luminescence Spectroscopy -- Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy -- Mass Spectrometry -- Flow Cytometry -- Electrochemical Methods and Sensors -- Other Chemical Methods -- Future Developments -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-13 Biological and Biochemical Analysis of Bacteria and Viruses, /Andreas Hensel and the late Klaus Petzoldt -- Introduction -- Approach to a Microbiological Study -- General Limitations -- Choice of Methods -- Microbiological Aspects -- Effects of Collecting Devices on -- Microbiological Results -- Assaying Airborne Microorganisms and Their Components -- Assaying Viability and Infectivity of -- Bacteria and Viruses -- Collecting Media -- Evaluation of Bacterial Viability -- Infectivity Assays -- Cultivation in Tissue Cultures -- Cultivation in Embryonated Eggs -- Animal Inoculation -- Non-Cultural Methods -- Direct Examination -- Staining -- Electron Microscopy -- Immune Electron Microscopy -- Antibody-Based Detection of Specific -- Microbial Antigens -- Immunofluorescence Tests -- Enzyme Immunoassays and Radioimmunoassays -- Immunoelectroblot Techniques -- Detection of Specific Microbial Nucleic Acids -- Detection of Specific Microbial Products -- Chromogenic and Fluorogenic Enzyme Substrate Tests -- Gas-Liquid Chromatography -- Luminescence -- Limulus Test for LPS Detection -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-14 Biological Analysis of Fungi and Associated Molds, /TM Madelin and MF Madelin -- Introduction -- General Characteristics of Fungi and Associated Molds -- Principles of Aeromycological Assays -- Total Assay of Aerosols of Fungi and Associated Molds -- Introduction -- Non-Volumetric Total Assays -- Volumetric Total Assays -- Total Assay of Rain- and Splash-Dispersed Air Spora -- Microscopic Identification of Air Spora Constituents -- Viability -- Introduction -- Culture Techniques -- Vital Staining -- Infectivity -- Plant Pathogens -- Animal Pathogens -- Airborne Mycoses -- Toxicity -- Allergenicity Assays -- Introduction -- Symptoms of Respiratory Allergy -- Sampling the Environment -- Identifying and Extracting the Antigens -- Testing for Allergy -- Species Implicated in Allergies -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-15 Aerobiology of Pollen and Pollen Antigens, /Auli Rantio-Lehtimiiki -- Introduction -- General Characteristics of Pollen Grains -- Principles of Pollen Assays -- Total Assay of Pollen Aerosols -- Introduction -- Non-Volumetric Total Assays -- Volumetric Total Assay -- Intact Pollen Grains -- Pollen Antigens -- Pollen Grains and Pollen Antigens Indoors -- Pollen Information Networks -- Local Networks -- All-Continent Networks -- Viability -- Introduction -- Methods of Studying the Viability of Pollen Grains -- Pollen Allergies -- Introduction -- Allergenic Pollen -- Allergic Reactions to Pollen Grains -- Studies of Individual Pollen Allergens -- Introduction -- Methods of Studying Pollen Antigens -- Individual Pollen Allergens -- Allergens in Micron Size Fractions in the Air -- Pharmacology -- Detection of Pollen Allergy -- Immunotherapy and Drugs -- Toxins -- Toxic Pollen Grains -- Pollen and Acid Rain -- Changes in Pollen Chemistry Due to -- Atmospheric Pollutants -- Pollen Grains in Toxin Tests -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-16 Outdoor Air Sampling Techniques, /J Lacey and J Venette -- Introduction -- Sources of Bioaerosols -- Ambient Air -- Sedimentation Samplers -- Impaction on Static Rods -- Whirling Arm Impactors -- Impaction in Suction Traps -- Virtual Impactors -- Impingers -- Cyclone and High-Volume Samplers -- Filtration Samplers -- Precipitation Sampling -- Biological Air Samplers -- Choice of Sampler -- Siting -- Collection Media -- Handling the Catch -- Under Plant Canopies and in Crops -- In and Over Cities -- Over Seas -- Upper Atmosphere -- Isokinetic Air Sampler -- Isokinetic Sampler for Light Aircraft -- Modified Isokinetic Impactor -- Andersen Drum Sampler -- Qualitative Collection of Airborne Microorganisms -- McGill GE Electrostatic Bacterial Air Sampler -- Filter Sampler -- Straight Tube Ram Jet Impactor -- Membrane Filtration -- Cyclone Sampler -- Sampling from Rockets -- Culture Media and Incubation Temperatures -- for Airborne Sampling -- Sampling Plans -- Large vs Small Bioaerosol Particles: Choice of Samplers -- Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter-17 Safety Cabinets, Fume Cupboards and Other Containment Systems, /RP Clark -- Introduction -- Sources of Bioaerosols -- Assessment of Hazard -- Containment Systems -- Microbiological Safety Cabinets -- Class I Microbiological Safety Cabinet -- Class II Microbiological Safety Cabinet -- Class III Microbiological Safety Cabinet -- Convertible Cabinets -- Safety Cabinets for Non-Microbiological Use -- Fume Cupboards (Hoods) -- Absorption Fume Cupboards -- Local Exhaust Systems (LEV) -- Rooms as Containment Facilities -- Containment Principles -- Operator Protection Factors -- The Microbiological Method -- The Potassium Iodide KI-Discus Method -- Tests Based on Gas Tracers -- Examples of the Use of Containment Measurements -- Effect of Laboratory Ventilation Systems -- Automated Analysis Equipment and Possible -- Bioaerosol Hazards -- Surface Contamination -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-18 Problem Buildings, Laboratories and Hospitals, /JM Macher, AJ Streifel and D. Vesley -- Introduction -- Sources and Consequences of Bioaerosol Exposures -- Problem Buildings -- Laboratories -- Hospitals -- Deciding When Environmental Monitoring Is Appropriate -- Investigating Building-Related Bioaerosol Problems and -- Evaluating Exposures -- Visual Inspection -- Surface and Material Sampling -- Air Sampling -- Sampling Procedures -- Sampling Sites -- Sampling Frequency, Timing and Volume -- Detection MethodsS -- Interpreting Findings -- Liquid and Material Samples· -- Air Samples -- Problem Buildings -- Laboratories -- Hospitals -- Modeling -- Ventilation for Bioaerosol Control -- Summary -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter-19 Industrial Workplaces, /B Crook and SA Olenchock -- Introduction -- Health Effects of Bioaerosols in the Workplace -- Microbial Infection -- Allergy to Airborne Microorganisms -- Allergy to Non-Microbial Airborne Materials -- Toxicosis -- Sources of Bioaerosols -- Agriculture /Food Production -- Factory /Industrial -- Biotechnology -- Bioaerosol Samplers Used in Industrial Workplaces -- Airborne Microorganisms -- Non-Microbial Bioaerosols -- Endotoxins -- Practical Considerations -- Sampling Strategies -- Sampler Positioning -- When to Sample -- Handling the Catch -- Summary -- References -- Chapter-20 Bioaerosols in Animal Houses, /CM Wathes -- Introduction -- Why?-The Reasons for Bioaerosol Sampling in Animal Houses7 -- What?-The Nature of Bioaerosols in Animal Houses -- Airborne Pathogens in Animal Houses -- Typical Constituents of Bioaerosols in Animal Houses -- How?-General Principles of Bioaerosol -- Sampling in Animal Houses -- Physical Processes Involved in Sampling Bioaerosols -- First Step-Take a Representative Sample -- Second Step-Transport the Sample to the Collector -- Third Step-Condition the Sample -- Fourth Step-Collect the Bioaerosol With a Sampler -- Choice of Bioaerosol Samplers for Use in Animal Houses -- Optical Particle Counters -- Impactors -- Impingers -- Filtration Samplers -- Calibration for Particle Size and Flow Rate and Other Good Practices -- Supplementary Information to Be Reported -- Where?-Location of Bioaerosol Samplers in Animal Houses -- Location and Number of Sampling Sites -- When?-Frequency of Bioaerosol Sampling in Animal Houses -- Dynamic Behavior of Bioaerosols -- Duration and Frequency of Sampling -- Who?-Students of Bioaerosols in Animal Houses -- Conclusions -- References -- Chapter-21 Bioaerosols in the Residential Environment, /Harriet A Burge -- Relationships Between Human Diseases and -- Bioaerosols Indoors -- Infections -- Hypersensitivity -- Toxicoses -- Reservoirs, Amplifiers and Disseminators of Bioaerosols -- Outdoor Air -- Human Sources -- House Dust -- Other Substrates for Fungi -- Water Reservoirs and Other Sites for Bacteria -- Pets and Pests -- Sampling -- Collecting a Valid Sample -- Sample Analysis -- Data Analysis and Interpretation -- Prevention and Remediation -- Prevention of Intrusion -- Control of Potential Reservoirs -- Remediation -- Summary -- References -- Index.