Essential Oil Extraction, Scalability Concerns, and Process Intensification

This book provides insights into essential oil extraction research with a special interest in the scalability concerns of each extraction method and their techno-economic concerns. It includes advancements and prognosis for the optimal extraction of essential oils from laboratory to pilot, then to industrial scale. It overviews and identifies sustainable options and proposes improvements to the currently available technologies in essential oil extraction. Features: - Focuses on extraction technology of essential oils and scalability concern of essential oil extraction. - Presents robust elucidation on essential oil production, current market value, and demand. - Reviews feasibility studies and consideration of essential oil production processes. - Recent advancements in oil extraction methodologies and process intensification techniques for optimizing nutraceutical recovery. - Emphasizes process optimization control parameters, and addresses environmental sustainability concern in essential oil extraction. This book is aimed at graduate students, researchers, and professionals in separation and purification processes, process intensification, and agricultural feedstocks.

Olalere Olusegun Abayomi is an experienced researcher with demonstrated multidisciplinary expertise in Chemical Engineering Science, Food Biotechnology, Bioprocess Engineering, Analytical Chemistry, Product Development and Process Optimization. He finished his PhD from the University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia under the Department of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering. Before that he obtained his master's degree in Industrial and Production Engineering from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He had his first degree in Chemical Engineering from the Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo is a Chemical Engineer, Lecturer, and Researcher, a recipient of the National Research Foundation (NRF) and The World Academy of Science (TWAS) African Renaissance Doctoral Fellowship grant at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa between 2016-2019. He is currently a Research Fellow at the Faculty of Engineering, Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Africa. His research areas of specialization and interests are Artificial Intelligence, Bioprocessing, Data Science, Food Science, and Nutritional Studies, Modeling and Simulation, Process Optimization, and Renewable Energy. Bernardo Castro Dominguez is an Assistant Professor (Tenured) in Chemical Engineering and lead of the Smart Process Engineering Lab at the University of Bath (UK). His research has focused on the integration of digital technologies for materials discovery and process design and optimization. He was recipient of the prestigious Monbukagakusho Scholarship to pursue his PhD studies at the University of Tokyo (Japan) in the area of Chemical Systems Engineering. He holds a BSc and MSc in Chemical Engineering from the University of Utah (US).

Contents About the Editors xi List of Contributors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Chapter 1 Essential Oil's Current Market Value and Demand 1 Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo , Olalere Olusegun Abayomi , Paul Musonge , Anthony Okoji and Chiazor Faustina Jisieike 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Essential Oil's Market Size and Predictions 1 1.3 Essential Oil Market Focus and International Oil Players 3 1.3.1 Method of Extraction Insights 3 1.4 Current Essential Oil Market Dynamics and Challenges 4 1.5 Consumer Demand, Quality Measure, and Regulatory Bodies in Essential Oil Market 4 1.5.1 Consumer Health and Wellness 4 1.5.2 Quality Measure in Essential Oil Market 5 1.5.3 Regulatory Hurdles 5 1.6 Conclusion 6 References 6 Chapter 2 Azeotropic Distillation: Unlocking the Potential of Essential Oil Extraction 8 Naadhira Seedat , Vizelle Naidoo and Rishen Roopchund 2.1 Introduction 8 2.1.1 Definition and Significance of Azeotropic Distillation in Essential Oil Extraction 8 2.2 Brief Overview of Historical Backgrounds 9 2.3 Historical Evolution of Essential Oil Extraction 10 2.3.1 Ancient Methods of Essential Oil Extraction 10 2.3.2 Transition to More Advanced Distillation Techniques 10 2.3.3 Traditional Azeotropic Distillation Techniques 12 2.4 Case Studies Highlighting the Application of Hybrid Techniques 27 2.4.1 Efficiency, Yield, and Quality Considerations 27 2.4.2 Environmental and Economic Implications 28 2.5 Future Prospects and Innovations 32 2.5.1 Ongoing Research and Development in Azeotropic Distillation 32 2.5.2 Potential Advancements and Improvements 32 2.5.3 The Role of Azeotropic Distillation in the Future of Essential Oil Extraction 33 2.6 Conclusion 34 References 35 Chapter 3 Soxhlet Solvent Extraction of Phytoconstituents 40 Samuel Olugbenga Olunusi and Nor Hanuni Ramli 3.1 Introduction 40 3.1.1 Background and Significance 40 3.2 Objectives of the Chapter 41 3.3 Overview of Essential Oils 41 3.4 Brief History of SE 42 3.5 Principles of SE 42 3.5.1 Theory of SE 42 3.5.2 Working Principle 42 3.6 Advantages and Limitations 44 3.7 Essential Oil Extraction Process 45 3.8 Selection of Plant Material 45 3.9 Pretreatment of Raw Materials 45 3.10 Selection of Solvents 46 3.11 Detailed Extraction Procedure 46 3.11.1 Loading the Extractor 46 3.11.2 Siphoning and Condensation 49 3.11.3 Solvent Recovery 50 3.12 Factors Affecting Extraction Efficiency 50 3.13 Safety Considerations 52 3.14 Types of Soxhlet Apparatus 52 3.14.1 Traditional Glass Soxhlet Apparatus 52 3.14.2 Modern SE Systems 53 3.15 Comparison and Selection Based on Literatures and Applications 55 3.16 Applications of SE in Essential Oil Production 55 3.16.1 Case Studies and Examples 55 3.16.2 Comparison with Other Extraction Methods 56 3.17 Analysis and Characterization of Extracted Essential Oils 59 3.17.1 Quality Control Methods 59 3.17.2 Analytical Techniques 59 3.17.3 Aromatogram and Chemical Composition 60 3.18 Yield Enhancement and Optimization 61 3.18.1 Yield Improvement Strategies 61 3.18.2 Optimization Techniques 62 3.19 Experimental Design in SE 63 3.19.1 Sample Preparation, Essential Oil Production, and Analysis 63 3.19.2 Statistical Analysis Using RSM 63 3.20 Environmental and Sustainability Considerations 63 3.20.1 Solvent Selection and Waste Management 64 3.20.2 Green SE Practices 64 3.21 Challenges and Future Trends of SE 65 3.21.1 Current Challenges in SE 66 3.21.2 Emerging Technologies and Innovations 66 3.22 Future Prospects 67 3.23 Summary of Key Points 67 3.24 Importance of SE in Essential Oil Production 69 3.25 Detailed Experimental Protocols 69 3.26 Safety Guidelines 69 3.27 Conclusion 70 References 70 Chapter 4 Pulsed Electric Field Extraction of Essential Oils 75 Olawale P. Olatidoye 4.1 Introduction to Essential Oils and Extraction Methods 75 4.2 Sources of Natural Essential Oils 77 4.3 Constituents of Essential Oil 78 4.4 Methods of Producing Essential Oils 78 4.5 Importance of Essential Oils in Various Industry 79 4.5.1 Anticancer Mechanism of Essential Oils 79 4.5.2 Essential Oil as an Antioxidant Agent: Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oil 80 4.5.3 Essential Oil as an Antidiabetic Agent 81 4.5.4 Antimicrobial Application 82 4.5.5 Pesticidal Applications of Essential Oils 83 4.5.6 Essential Oil's Biological Activities 83 4.6 Overview of Traditional Extraction Methods 84 4.6.1 The Need for Innovative Extraction Techniques 84 4.6.2 Basic Principle of PEF-Assisted Extraction 86 4.6.3 Basic System Components of PEF Technology 87 4.6.4 PEF Treatment Chamber Design 89 4.6.5 Factors Affecting Pulsed Electric Technology 90 4.7 PEF-Assisted Extraction 92 4.7.1 Application of PEF in Food Processing 93 4.7.2 Application of PEF in Drying 94 4.7.3 Application of PEF in Food Freezing 94 4.7.4 PEF in Fruit and Vegetable Processing 95 4.7.5 PEF-Treated Milk and Milk Products 95 4.7.6 PEF Meat and Poultry Products 96 4.8 Limitation/Problems and Challenges of PET Technology 96 4.8.1 Future Directions 97 4.9 Conclusion 97 References 98 Chapter 5 Mechanochemically Assisted Extraction of Essential Oil 106 Jacky S. Bouanga Boudiomboa , Banele Vatsha and Olalere Olusegun Abayomi 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 History of Mechanochemistry 107 5.3 Extraction Mechanism of MCAE 110 5.3.1 Homogenization 111 5.3.2 Cell Fragmentation 111 5.3.3 Mechanochemical Reactions 112 5.4 Mechanochemical Methods and Instrumentations 112 5.4.1 Mechanochemical Methods 112 5.5 Parameters of MCAE 115 5.5.1 Sample Preparation 115 5.5.2 Type of Raw Materials and Their Particle Size 116 5.5.3 Quantity of Raw Material in the Mill 117 5.5.4 The Solid Reagent 117 5.5.5 Milling Time 118 5.5.6 Extraction Time 118 5.5.7 Extraction Temperature 119 5.5.8 pH of Extraction 119 5.5.9 Choice of Solvents 119 5.5.10 Liquid/Solid Ratio 119 5.6 Practical Application of MCAE in Essential Oil Extraction/Derivatives and Other Compounds 120 5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of MCAE and Future Outlook 123 5.8 Conclusion 126 References 126 Chapter 6 Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Essential Oil 132 Chiazor Faustina Jisieike , Maduka Augustine Nwufo , Abiola Ezekiel Taiwo , Paul Musonge and Ifeyinwa Obiora-Dimson 6.1 Introduction 132 6.2 Mechanism of MW Heating 134 6.2.1 Working Principle of MAE 135 6.2.2 Designs of MAE Reactors 135 6.3 Advantages and Limitations of MAE 136 6.4 Advances in MAE Techniques 138 6.4.1 MW-Assisted Hydro-Distillation 139 6.4.2 Ultrasonic MW-Assisted Extraction 141 6.4.3 MW Steam Distillation 142 6.4.4 MW Hydrodiffusion and Gravity 143 6.4.5 Solvent-Free MW Extraction 145 6.4.6 Compressed Air MW Distillation 147 6.4.7 Pressurized SFME 147 6.5 Variables Affecting MAE Efficiency 147 6.5.1 MW Power 148 6.5.2 Sample Characteristics 149 6.5.3 Extraction Time 149 6.5.4 Solvent Selection 151 6.6 Economy, Energy, and Environmental Implications of MAE 152 6.7 Future Prospects 153 6.8 Conclusion 154 References 154 Chapter 7 Microwave-Assisted Extraction: A Green Approach to Obtaining Essential Oils 159 Rupesh Kaushik , Harjinder Kaur , Ab Waheed Wani , Ajay Saroha , Sanjeev Kumar and Sapna Jarial 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Essentials of MAEs 160 7.2.1 Principles and Workings of MAE 160 7.2.2 MAE System Configuration and Instrumentation 161 7.2.3 MAE Systems Intermediary Alterations 161 7.3 Chemistry, Extraction, and Uses of Essential Oils and Aromas 162 7.4 Techniques for Extracting Essential Oils and Aroma 164 7.4.1 Microwave Compressed Air Distillation 164 7.4.2 Hydro-distillation by Microwave 164 7.4.3 Microwave Extraction Without Solvent 166 7.4.4 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity 169 7.4.5 Microwave-Assisted Distillation 172 7.4.6 Pressurised MAE 172 7.4.7 Subcritical and SFE with Microwave Assistance 173 7.4.8 Enzymatic Extraction with Microwave Assistance 174 7.5 Scalability Issues 175 7.5.1 Cost, Energy, and Environmental Issues 175 7.6 Industrial Applications 175 7.7 Conclusion and Prospects 175 References 176 Chapter 8 Nutraceutical Constituents and Properties and Applications of Essential Oil 181 Anamika Chauhan 8.1 Introduction 181 8.2 Definition and Significance of Essential Oils 182 8.3 Emerging Interest in Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 183 8.4 Properties of Essential Oils 186 8.5 Applications of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 188 8.5.1 Food Preservation and Flavouring 188 8.5.2 Inhibition of Food-borne Pathogens 191 8.6 Aromatherapy 191 8.7 Benefits of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 192 8.7.1 Health Benefits 192 8.7.2 Potential Therapeutic Uses 193 8.8 Conclusion 194 8.8.1 Summary of the Importance of Essential Oils as Nutraceuticals 195 8.8.2 Need for Further Research and Optimization in Nutraceutical Formulations 195 References 196 Index 203