Necessary Conditions of Learning

Necessary Conditions of Learning presents a research approach (phenomenography) and a theory (the variation theory of learning) introduced and developed by Ference Marton and taken up by his wide and varied following around the world-together with their practical applications in educational contexts. Reflecting Marton's whole lifetime's work, the unique and significant contribution of this book is to offer an evidence-based answer to the questions "How do we make novel meanings our own?" and "How do we learn to see things in more powerful ways?"
The presentation makes use of hundreds of empirical studies carried out in Europe and Asia which build on the theory. The line of reasoning and the way in which the examples are put together is consistent with the theory-it is both presented and applied. The main argument is that in order to learn we have to discern, and to discern the intended ideas we must be presented with carefully structured variation, against a background of invariance. We then go through processes of contrast, generalization, and fusion in order to make sense. These insights form a practical framework for those who design teaching and teaching materials. Necessary Conditions of Learning is a major original work for which scholars of pedagogical theory have been waiting a long time.

Ference Marton is Professor of Education at the Göteborg University, Sweden and Honorary Professor at the Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong. He is internationally known for introducing the distinction between deep and surface approaches to learning, for developing phenomenography as a methodology for educational research, and more recently for developing the variation theory of learning. Both the methodology and theory were developed by Marton together with research groups in Sweden, the UK, Australia, and China.

Preface 1. What makes humans human? Cultural evolution The species that teaches its offspring The origin of pedagogy Learning from others Learning as a by-product and learning as an aim "De-pedagogizing" learning Pedagogies of learning Teachers' professional knowledge What this book is about 2. What is to be learned? What matters? Organizing learning What is to be learned? Learning as differentiation Different meanings of what is to be learned 3. Sameness and difference in learning The problem with direct reference Discerning features that have been discerned previously Discerning features that have not been discerned previously We do have to learn to discern features whether or not they are innate Learning to discern novel features and aspects Dimensions of variation, and values* Neither from the specific to the general, nor the other way around Patterns of variation and invariance The path of learning Critical aspects and critical features again Why is the experience of difference, against a background of the experience of sameness, necessary for learning to discern novel features and novel aspects? Delimitation Grouping Differences and experienced differences Discernment, difference, simultaneity Discerning and learning to discern Using the known to prepare for the unknown The transfer of learning 4. What does the world look like to others? The revelation of Jonas Emanuelsson What is to be learned, again: Ways of seeing Finding critical aspects The learner's perspective and the observer's perspective Logic and understanding Asking questions Analyzing answers The idea of phenomenography Qualitative differences in learning, specific to specific objects of learning 5. The art of learning Learners generating patterns of variation and invariance Discoveries as discernments Innovations and the opening up of new dimensions of variation Finding novel meanings 6. Making learning possible Three faces of the object of learning Necessary conditions of necessary conditions of learning The origin of differences Analysing lessons Comparing teaching Relating learning and teaching to each other Bringing about learning: Patterns of variation and invariance as tools for planning and conducting teaching Bringing learning about: Implementing patterns of variation and invariance Bringing about learning: The order of things Hierarchical and sequential structure in reading and writing Can the "art of learning" be learned? There are no teaching experiments Putting conjectures to the test The Chinese connection 7. Learning to help others to learn What teachers have to be good at